#9 Internet age
Humans of the Internet Age and the Dangers of Our Environment
Lukas Otteson
Professor Russell
WRTG 391 Advanced Research Writing
University of Maryland University College
October 7, 2018
Introduction
We are living in the age of the internet, the digital age. Internet World Stats (as cited in Sahin, 2017) reported that, as of 2017, the number of worldwide internet users has reached four billion! As popular as it is, the internet is not without its concerns. The benefits are the high visibility aspects of the internet, but the maladaptive effects are far less publicized and not nearly as socially desirable a conversation topic. The internet has seen its share of criticism and concern as a whole from those who have made it a regular conversation topic and conducted research to illuminate it. There are many studies concerning the problematic use of the internet in its entirety. It may also be more productive to look at a few of its potentially problematic dimensions. Internet gaming, pornography, and social networking sites (SNSs) are three dimensions which researchers have become interested in with regard to maladaptive psychological effects and the Internet. Often times, the studies done on these topics cannot draw definite causal conclusions. That fact means that psychological and psychosocial factors can often be interpreted as possible predictors of problematic internet use (PIU), internet gaming disorder (IGD), internet pornography (IP) addiction, and social media site (SMS) addiction or possible effects. One way or another, these relationships need to be addressed, sooner rather than later, in order to ensure that we are doing all we can to protect the future of humanity’s well-being. The evidence is mounting and it shows a need to take these relationships seriously and question the influence we are allowing the internet to have on us. This paper will explore the relationships between the internet as a whole, IGD, IP, SMSs and psychological, psychiatric, and psychosocial well-being.
The Internet
The Internet can adversely affect users’ lives, whether they are cognizant of that fact or not. The Internet can be tricky for people to conceptualize as something that can be abused because it isn’t a substance, but it can be harmful despite its less obvious nature. Bodhi and Kaur noted that Internet addiction is a new form of addiction that has attracted attention from psychology, psychiatry, sociology, and other researchers and that generally refers to users’ inability to control their use of the Internet, leading to marked distress and functional impairment in their lives (2017). Alavi, Ferdosi, Jannatifard, Eslami, Aleghemandan, and Setare (as cited in Farahani, Alavi, Bafghi, Alamuti, Taghavi, and Mohammadi, 2018) describe internet addiction disorder as a psycho-social disorder characterized by withdrawal symptoms, tolerance, emotional disorders, and fragmentation of social relations while Farahani et al. call it pervasive, chronic, and a recurrent phenomenon correlated with serious family, social, physical, financial, and psychological harm (2018). The Internet is becoming the subject of an increasingly concerned community across multiple sciences and it is agreed upon by many that people can become addicted to the Internet, and that this addiction can adversely influence people’s lives like substances do.
Numerous studies have been done all over the world and the concerns surrounding the internet and its myriad of maladaptive effects are growing. Christakis, Moreno, Jelenchick, Myaing, and Zhou carried out a study of 224 US college students and the occurrence of PIU (2011). Farahani et al. conducted their research with 401 university students from four universities within Tehran and Karaj, Iran, hoping to find psychological factors to be predictors of internet addiction disorder (2018). Bodhi and Kaur collected data from 200 undergraduatestudents attending four different colleges affiliated to Punjabi University in order to assess the relationship between internet addiction and depression, anxiety, and stress (2017). Chun studied the effects of psychological problems, emotional dysregulation, and self-esteem on PIU among 351 adolescent students from four different middle schools in Seoul (2016). Scientists from around the globe are worried about the impression the internet is making on our mental health and the uneasiness is proliferating steadily.
What scientists have found through their inquiries regarding the relationship between mental health and the internet has been the driving force behind concern, not just speculative conjecture. Christakis et al. reported that 70% of their participants stay online longer than they intended to originally. Christakis et al. cited Hrubec (1981), who brings bring in a perspective on people at risk to addiction as a whole, in suggesting that today’s college students are clearly at risk considering: that repeated exposure to a substrate is necessary to develop an addiction, the exposure they have to the internet, and the high prevalence of self-expressed concerns about their reliance on it (2011).
The population as a whole is trending toward being exposed more and more to the internet, like those college students, and there should be just as much concern for society as a whole as there is for these students. Chun was able to reveal that psychological problems and emotional dysregulation negatively influenced self-esteem which, in turn, negatively influenced PIU or, in her words, “psychopathology influenced PIU by mediating maladjusted cognition associated with low self-esteem” in her study (2016).
Whether the internet causes negative self-esteem or self-esteem issues lead to PIU, the possibility that one may cause the other is alarming. Bodhi and Kaur found in their study that 51% of their eligible participants possessed an above average level of internet addiction and that there is a significant and positive relationship between internet addiction and depression, anxiety, and stress, indicating that the more addicted to the internet a student is, the more depression, anxiety, and stress they have (2017). Again, without being able to draw a definitive causal relationship conclusion, data illustrating a connection between mental health challenges and the internet may serve as motivation to add to the current literature on the subject.
Farahani et al.’s study showcased that narcissistic personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, anxiety, bipolar disorders, depression, and phobia could increase the odds ratio of internet addiction by 2.1, 1.1, 2.6, 1.1, 2.2, and 2.5 folds, that the odds of internet addiction for single persons were 20% more than for married ones, and people with personality disorders associated with low self-esteem and high impulsivity (Cluster C and Cluster B personality disorders) might be at special risk for developing internet addiction (2018). Considering that no causal relationships can be concluded from these studies, it is worrisome that either the internet is causing these personality disorders or it is important to emphasize careful internet usage and behavior for the rapidly expanding list of people who may be at risk of internet addiction.
Internet Gaming
Gaming is one area within the internet that is causing quite a stir throughout the global research psychology community. Problematic gaming is an issue all around the planet. Pontes conducted a study investigating the differential effects of IGD on psychological health in the United Kingdom (2017). Cheng, Cheung, and Wang led a 20 country multinational meta-analysis comparison of IGD and psychosocial problems versus well-being (2018). From the UK to Hong Kong, gaming is a concern.
Games are designed to keep gamers engaged and gamers should be concerned about what exactly that means for them if they don’t monitor its influence on them. Gamers need to be critical of whether or not their gaming habits are disrupting their ability to lead a healthy lifestyle because if they don’t, who will? Cheng et al. say that IGD has been viewed by scholars as a pathology that is often comorbid with psychological problems, maladaptive coping with an abundance of interpersonal challenges, and deficient self-regulation with underlying motives to restore psychological well-being (2018). IGD concerns those who study psychology in more ways than one. The DSM-5 (as cited in Cheng et al., 2018) listed IGD as a “condition for further study.” The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders including IGD reflects the need for, at the very least, caution with internet gaming. The American Psychiatric Association (as cited in Pontes, 2017) states:
“IGD is a clinical condition that comprises a behavioral pattern encompassing persistent and recurrent use of video games, leading to significant impairment or distress over a period of 12 months as indicated by endorsing five (or more) of the following nine criteria:
(i) preoccupation with games; (ii) withdrawal symptoms when gaming is taken away; (iii) tolerance, resulting in the need to spend increasing amounts of time engaged in games; (iv) unsuccessful attempts to control participation in games; (v) loss of interest in previous hobbies and entertainment as a result of, and with the exception of, games; (vi) continued excessive use of games despite knowledge of psychosocial problems; (vii) deceiving family members, therapists, or others regarding the amount of gaming; (viii) use of games to escape or relieve negative moods; and (ix) jeopardizing or losing a significant relationship, job, or education or career opportunity because of participation in games” (2013).
The APA is treating IGD like other mental disorders and perhaps they’re onto something. Cheng et al. wrote, “IGD reflects players’ attempts to fulfill unmet fundamental needs, with the ultimate goal of restoring psychosocial well-being by regaining self-esteem and replenishing social capital” (2018). IGD may be affecting gamers psychosocially or it may be developed by those who are lacking a healthy psychosocial status. Sioni, Burleson, and Bekerian (as cited in Pontes, 2017) empirically studied a sample 595 MMORPG players for the U.S and found that addictive video game play was positively associated with symptoms of social phobia, even after controlling for the shared influence of weekly gaming hours (2017). If gaming is causing social phobia by allowing gamers to escape their need to socialize and stunting their social development, then gaming is something to monitor usage of. If these social shortcomings are predictors of IGD, then gaming is, again, something to be monitored. Cheng et al. identified in their study that there was a moderately strong positive association between IGD symptoms and interpersonal problems in countries lower in power distance as well as between IGD symptoms and interpersonal problems in countries lower in cultural masculinity (2018). Add more evidence of IGD being detrimental to healthy functioning to the growing list in this paper alone. Pontes said conclusively that because addictive technology use affects individuals in educational settings, research on IGD among school-based adolescents may help policymakers design preventive policies geared toward mitigating the negative impact of addictive use of technology in young adolescents (2018). The literature on IGD indicates that more research is necessary in order to improve preventative measures and stop potentially maladaptive behaviors from developing and possibly leading to psychological and/or psychosocial problems.
Internet Pornography
Internet pornography is another dimension of the internet which is potentially influencing users more than they realize. IP and its effects on us psychologically and psychosocially is further evidence that our caution with the internet needs to be under our collective microscopes. Harper & Hodgins listed the symptoms of problematic internet pornography use (PIPU) presently represented in research literature on the topic with: Schneider noting dysfunctions in sexual arousal and achieving orgasm (as cited in Harper & Hodgins, 2016), Poulsen, Busby, & Galovan bringing loss of libido or sexual interest in a real partner and loss of interest in one’s romantic partner to the discussion (as cited in Harper & Hodgins, 2016), Philaretou, Malhfouz & Allen and Young contributing problems in psychosocial functioning such as depression, the risk of losing career and relationship opportunities, and a lack of motivation (as cited in Harper & Hodgins, 2016), Griffiths stating that many individuals have described as feeling a strong compulsion to view IP at times when it is highly inappropriate such as at work, in a room where children are present, or on a computer that is not their own (as cited in Harper & Hodgins, 2016), and Peter & Valkenburg and Zillmann & Bryant writing that individuals with PIPU report rash misconceptions of sexuality and sexual practice, such as beliefs that certain sexual acts are more socially normative than they really are, and other misconceptions that may reinforce racial and gender stereotypes and potentially increase violence toward women (as cited in Harper & Hodgins, 2016). PIPU is known to be associated with a whole slew of problems. Goldsmith, Dunkley, Dang, and Gorzalka found that time spent viewing pornography was correlated with body-related cognitive distractions among men and women and performance-related cognitive distractions among men (2017). Goldsmith et al. added that men had higher expectations of their partner’s sexual performance than women did while men and women were each similarly likely to expect their partner’s appearance to be like what is portrayed in pornography (2017).
Pornography may be making sex worse. Harper & Hodgins reported that participants from their study that reported symptoms of addictive IP use were more likely to have higher general anxiety and distress, as well as lower life satisfaction and relationship satisfaction (2016). Pornography’s effects may reach beyond the bedroom and into the well-being of users as a whole. Harper and Hodgins wrote that higher IP addiction scores were associated with poor psychosocial functioning (2016). The concern surrounding PIPU and its effects is certainly alarming and an indication that both prevention of developing PIPU to avoid its potential effects and the monitoring of those with poor psychosocial functioning to prevent their potential development of PIPU due to a possible predisposition to it need to be emphasized by a society that is moving deeper and deeper into the digital age.
Social Media Sites
Social media sites are less accepted as maladaptive mediums within the internet, but we need to heed caution with them just as much as any other dimension of the internet, though for different reasons. Sahin said, “Internet as a mass communication tool is increasingly impacting and penetrating every sphere of human life, which gave rise to the emergence of sites of social networks called social media” (2017). Social media sites are among us and they appear to be here to stay, for better or worse. Andreassen & Pallesen (as cited in Sahin, 2017) say, “being hooked on social media, wanting to be always online on social media, being directed with uncontrolled motivations and being affected negatively in other spheres of life due to this situation are regarded as the symptoms of social media addiction.” Social media addiction is a compulsive, time-consuming pattern of behavior. Shensa, Sidani, Dew, Escobar-Viera, & Primack say that how one feels about or experiences social media may be a more salient indicator of the effect that social media may have on an individual, rather the quantity of consumption or exposure to social media alone (2018). That means that a lesser quantity of SMU doesn’t exactly translate into healthy SMU. Sahin said, “social media addiction affects life satisfaction of university students in a negative way to a significant extent,” (2017). Is there a more convincing statement to urge people to question the influence that social media has on them? Shensa et al. reported that findings from their study indicate the “Wired” cluster () and the “Connected” cluster () were connected with the most risk of depression and anxiety while “Diffuse Dabblers,” “Concentrated Dabblers,” and “Unplugged” clusters were not associated with depression or anxiety (2017). Shensa et al. conclude from their findings that, “feeling emotionally connected to one’s social media community, in combination with high volume of SMU, may be deleterious to one’s well-being, even in the absence of any problematic use,” (2017). Social media use and its relationships with psychological and psychosocial problems need to be explored more and prevention of maladaptive behavior patterns leading to problematic SMU needs to be emphasized to be safe rather than sorry.
Conclusion
The apprehension many hold toward the internet is warranted and scientists all over the world are trying to bring to light the less visible aspects of the internet. Correlations between the internet and low self-esteem, depression, stress, anxiety, bipolar disorders, obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, phobias, emotional dysregulation, and addiction are hardly anything to ignore and allow to fester under our noses. With that said, the internet is home to many domains.
Three in particular are subjects of scrutinized research in these times of immense growth of the internet and everything that is connected to it. Internet gaming, pornography, and social networking sites are all regarded as potentially problematic and addictive. The addiction to or problematic use of these domains is linked to all kinds of problems ranging from poor psychosocial functioning to depression and anxiety to lower life satisfaction (Harper & Hodgins, 2016; Shensa et al., 2017;). It is clear that these dimensions within the internet need to be taken seriously as substance-activity use disorders and their comorbidities need to be taken into account as possible side effects or symptoms, but also as risk-predicting factors due to the
cross-sectional majority of the literature that is currently available. Being humans during the age of the internet means we need to know the dangers of our environment, and that means we need to take these findings seriously and question the influence the internet is having on us.
References
Bodhi, V., & Kaur, J. (2017). Psychological correlates of internet addiction among college students. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 8(11), 1404-1408.
Cheng, C., Cheung, M. W., & Wang, H. (2018). Review: Multinational comparison of internet gaming disorder and psychosocial problems versus well-being: Meta-analysis of 20 countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 88153-167. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.06.033
Christakis, D. A., Moreno, M. M., Jelenchick, L., Myaing, M. T., & Zhou, C. (2011).
Problematic internet usage in US college students: a pilot study. BMC Medicine, 9(1), 77-82. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-77
Chun, J. (2016). Effects of psychological problems, emotional dysregulation, and self-esteem on problematic Internet use among Korean adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 68187-192. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.07.005
Farahani, M., Alavi, S. S., Mirzamani Bafghi, M., Esmaili Alamuti, S., Taghavi, Z., & Mohammadi, M. (2018). Psychological factors including demographic features, mental illnesses, and personality disorders as predictors in Internet Addiction Disorder. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 13(2), 104-110.
Goldsmith, K., Dunkley, C. R., Dang, S. S., & Gorzalka, B. (2017). Pornography consumption and its association with sexual concerns and expectations among young men and women.
Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, (2), 151.
Harper, C., & Hodgins, D. C. (2016). Examining correlates of problematic Internet pornography use among university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5(2), 179-191. doi:10.1556/2006.5.2016.022
Pontes, H. (2017). Investigating the differential effects of social networking site addiction and Internet gaming disorder on psychological health. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6(4), 601-610. doi:10.1556/2006.6.2017.075
Sahin, C. (2017). The predictive level of social media addiction for life satisfaction: A study on university students. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 16(4), 120-125.
Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Dew, M. A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., & Primack, B. A. (2018). Social media use and depression and anxiety symptoms: A cluster analysis. American Journal of Health Behavior, 42(2), 116-128. doi:10.5993/AJHB.42.2.11
Professor’s Note:
Lukas,
Once again, an exceptional paper – well beyond the expectations for this level of course. I will give you full marks and there is no need to re-submit. I sense that you have learned quite a bit about your topic from this project (as I have) and I hope you will continue to pursue this interest. We really need clinical psychologists and psychiatrists who specialize in this area. I will watch for your name on future publications in the UMUC library!
I thought about asking you to let me send out your paper (with your name) as a model for your classmates, many of whom are really struggling with this assignment and don’t seem to understand the concepts of “research studies” or how to synthesize information. But I know with the internet the way it is, you’d probably prefer to keep your projects private. This paper might be a good basis for essays in higher level psychology courses and for that reason alone, it should probably be kept confidential for your own use.
I am in the middle of reading Incognito and am really enjoying it. In fact, I was reading it on the plane on the way to Mexico, where I am right now. I don’t go for “resorts” – I’m hiking in the mountains and making plans to follow the monarch butterfly migration this winter. I know… weird! In retrospect, The Shallows was fairly good, but already seems a little mundane and dated relative to new developments, and Incognito is much edgier and more engaging. Thanks so much for the recommendation! I will definitely be following this author.
Another interesting one I read recently is How to Change Your Mind by Michael Pollan. I’ve read all his books – widely varied topics and always interesting. This one is about psychedelics as therapy for a number of treatment-resistant conditions like OCD and various addictions. His premise is a fascinating one and there’s a mountain of new research that supports it – that by exposing people to “mind expanding” and “ego reducing” experiences (under tight control and monitoring of course) – somehow the pre-set routes our brains take to make decisions and filter information get shaken up, like a snow globe, and new pathways are suddenly possible. Now there’s a fascinating new area for open-minded psychologists to pursue!
One other book I’d recommend, not so much on psychology, but just for expanding your world view – great for people like us who travel a lot. It’s “Factfulness: Ten reasons we’re wrong about the world and why things are better than we think” by Hans Rosling. Really eye-opening and fun to read.
Thanks, sincerely, for taking the time to do such a good job on this project and for ending up with one of the highest grades I’ve ever given in this course. If you ever need an academic recommendation of any type (I know the military sometimes values those things) just let me know. It really has been a treat having you in the group.
Barbara
